The Art of Fermentation in Asian Cuisine: A Journey Through Flavors
(Mustard Greens getting fermented; some with sugar and salt, others with rice water and salt).
Fermentation has been a fundamental part of culinary traditions worldwide, particularly evident in the diverse food cultures of Asia. Historically, fermentation developed out of necessity; before the advent of modern refrigeration, people needed effective methods to preserve fresh ingredients for extended periods. By utilizing naturally occurring microorganisms—such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds—communities were able to prolong the shelf life of perishable foods while also enhancing their flavor, texture, and nutritional benefits.
Over time, fermentation transformed from a practical preservation technique into a vibrant cultural practice. The geography, climate, and available resources of each region shaped the types of foods that were fermented, resulting in a fascinating array of products. For instance, coastal regions often focused on fermenting seafood (like fish sauce in Southeast Asia and salted fish in East Asia), while inland and pastoral communities created fermented dairy products (such as mare’s milk beverages in Mongolia). In more temperate areas, vegetables and grains became the primary focus for fermentation (like kimchi in Korea, miso in Japan, and dosa batter in South India).
Despite these regional differences, there are common themes that connect fermented foods across Asia. The use of salt is nearly universal, as it creates an environment that supports beneficial microbes while preventing the growth of harmful bacteria. Many cultures also employ similar fermentation vessels—such as earthenware pots or sealed containers—that allow the fermentation process to occur under controlled conditions. Additionally, the fermentation process often adds a complex, umami-rich depth of flavor that is highly valued in Asian cuisine.
However, within these broad similarities, local climates and traditions lead to uniquely distinct fermentation styles. For example, hot and humid regions tend to produce quick ferments (like Southeast Asian shrimp pastes), while cooler climates support slower, longer aging processes (such as Korean doenjang or Chinese black beans). The choice of ingredients also varies significantly: rice, soybeans, and more.
Fermented Foods by Country/Region
Below are examples of fermented foods (and beverages) across various Asian cuisines, with corrected names and scripts where applicable.
Korea
Kimchi (김치)
Spicy and tangy fermented vegetables, often cabbage or radishes.
Served as a side dish or used in soups and stews.
Doenjang (된장)
A fermented soybean paste used in stews (jjigae) and soups.
Noted for its rich, savory flavor.
Gochujang (고추장)
A spicy fermented chili paste used in marinades, sauces, and as a condiment.
Contributes a sweet, spicy, and savory depth to dishes.
Makgeolli (막걸리)
A traditional Korean rice wine made from fermented rice.
Often enjoyed for its mild sweetness and light, effervescent quality.
Jeotgal (젓갈)
A variety of salted and fermented seafood, used as a seasoning or side dish.
Can be made from shrimp, clams, fish, or other seafood.
Dongchimi (동치미)
A mild, watery radish kimchi often served as a refreshing side dish.
Known for its light, tangy flavor.
Japan
Miso (味噌)
A savory, umami-rich paste made from fermented soybeans (often mixed with rice or barley).
Used in soups, marinades, and dressings.
Sake (酒)
A traditional Japanese rice wine made from fermented rice.
Enjoyed as a beverage and also used in cooking.
Tsukemono (漬物)
A variety of pickled vegetables, such as cucumbers, daikon, or eggplant.
Often served as a side dish or garnish.
Narezushi (なれずし / 熟鮓)
An ancient form of sushi made by fermenting fish with rice.
Characterized by a distinctly sour flavor and unique texture.
Umeboshi (梅干し)
Pickled and salted plums (ume) that are fermented until soft.
Often used as a condiment or as a filling in rice balls (onigiri).
Shio Koji (塩麹)
A fermented mixture of rice inoculated with koji mold, salt, and water.
Used as a seasoning or marinade, adding mild sweetness and enhancing umami.
Natto (納豆)
Sticky, pungent fermented soybeans, typically eaten with rice (often for breakfast).
Known for its strong aroma and stringy texture; rich in probiotics.
Indonesia
Tempeh
A firm, cake-like product made from fermented soybeans.
Often used as a high-protein meat substitute.
Tape / Tapai
A sweet fermented rice or cassava dish.
Often enjoyed as a snack or dessert.
Oncom
A fermented food made from by-products of tofu or peanut production.
Common in Sundanese (West Javan) cuisine.
Brem
A traditional fermented rice wine from Bali.
Known for its sweet and slightly tangy flavor.
Tempe Semangit
A type of tempeh fermented for a longer period, resulting in a stronger, more pungent flavor.
Tauco
A fermented soybean paste used as a seasoning in Indonesian cuisine.
Adds a salty and slightly sweet depth to dishes.
China
Douchi (豆豉)
Fermented black beans used as a seasoning.
Salty and slightly sweet, often used in stir-fries and sauces.
Shaoxing Wine (绍兴酒)
A traditional Chinese rice wine used in cooking and as a beverage.
Known for its rich and complex flavor.
Suan Cai (酸菜)
Pickled mustard greens or cabbage.
Often used in soups, stews, or stir-fries (e.g., suancai yu).
Lao Gan Ma (老干妈)
A popular brand of chili-based sauce that often contains fermented soybeans.
Widely used as a condiment or seasoning.
Fu Ru (腐乳)
Fermented tofu with a creamy texture and strong flavor.
Used as a condiment or in cooking, sometimes referred to as “Chinese cheese.”
Huangjiu (黄酒)
A traditional Chinese yellow rice wine.
Used in cooking and also consumed as a warm beverage.
Thailand
Pla Ra (ปลาร้า)
A traditional fermented fish sauce often used in northeastern Thai cuisine (Isan).
Contributes a rich, pungent flavor to dishes such as som tam.
Nam Pla (น้ำปลา)
A fish sauce made from fermented fish, salt, and water.
Commonly used as a seasoning or condiment in Thai cooking.
Som Tam (ส้มตำ)
A spicy green papaya salad.
Often includes fermented fish or crab (pla ra or pu dong) for added depth.
Kapi (กะปิ)
A fermented shrimp paste used as a seasoning in Thai curries and sauces.
Has a strong, salty flavor.
Sai Krok Isan (ไส้กรอกอีสาน)
A fermented sausage made from pork and rice, often grilled.
Popular as a street food snack.
Nam Prik (น้ำพริก)
A category of chili pastes that can include fermented shrimp paste or fish sauce.
Served as a condiment or dip with vegetables and rice.
Philippines
Burong Mangga
Pickled green mangoes fermented with salt and sometimes sugar.
Eaten as a side dish or snack.
Atchara
A pickled papaya relish made by fermenting grated unripe papaya with vinegar, sugar, and spices.
Commonly served as a condiment with fried or grilled dishes.
Tapuy (Tapuey)
A traditional Filipino rice wine made from fermented glutinous rice.
Often enjoyed during festive occasions.
Patis
A fish sauce made from fermented fish.
Commonly used as a seasoning in Filipino cuisine.
Tinapa
Smoked fish; while not always “fermented,” some versions incorporate curing or brining steps.
Often served for breakfast or used in various recipes.
Bagoong
A fermented shrimp or fish paste used as a condiment or seasoning.
Integral to many Filipino dishes (e.g., kare-kare).
Mongolia
1. Airag (айраг) / Kumis
What is it? A lightly alcoholic beverage made from fermented mare’s milk (or sometimes camel’s milk in certain regions).
Flavor & Usage: Slightly sour and effervescent. Airag is central to Mongolian pastoral culture and is often served to guests as a sign of hospitality.
2. Aaruul (ааруул)
What is it? Dried curds made from fermented milk.
Flavor & Usage: Tart and hard in texture, aaruul is typically eaten as a snack or to aid digestion.
3. Tarag (тараг)
What is it? Mongolian yogurt, usually made from cow, goat, or sheep’s milk.
Flavor & Usage: Similar to other yogurts but with a distinctive tang. It can be consumed plain or used as a base for other dishes.
Cambodia
1. Prahok (ប្រហុក)
What is it? A pungent fermented fish paste made from crushed freshwater fish and salt.
Flavor & Usage: Known for its strong aroma and savory depth; used as a seasoning or eaten with vegetables and rice.
2. Mam (ម៉ាំ)
What is it? Another type of Cambodian fermented fish, often made with galangal, garlic, and sometimes roasted rice for added flavor.
Flavor & Usage: Slightly less pungent than prahok, mam is often eaten as a side dish or condiment.
3. Kapi (កាពិ)
What is it? A fermented shrimp paste similar to versions found in neighboring countries.
Flavor & Usage: Used as a seasoning in various Cambodian dishes, sauces, and dips.
Vietnam
(Note: Vietnam was partially mentioned before with pickled vegetables, but here are more fermented staples.)
1. Nước Mắm (fish sauce)
What is it? Fermented fish sauce made by layering fish and salt in barrels.
Flavor & Usage: Salty, umami-rich, and essential in countless Vietnamese recipes—from dipping sauces (nước chấm) to marinades.
2. Mắm Tôm (fermented shrimp paste)
What is it? A purple-hued fermented paste made from shrimp, salt, and often left to mature in the sun.
Flavor & Usage: Very pungent, commonly used as a dipping sauce (often mixed with lime juice) or in dishes like bún đậu mắm tôm (tofu and vermicelli).
3. Tương (fermented soybean sauce)
What is it? A thick sauce made by fermenting soybeans with water and sometimes rice or wheat.
Flavor & Usage: Adds a mildly sweet, savory note to dishes such as bún riêu or vegetarian stir-fries.
Malaysia
1. Belacan
What is it? A dried, fermented shrimp paste pressed into blocks.
Flavor & Usage: Strongly aromatic; used in sambal (chili paste) and a variety of Malaysian curries and stir-fries.
2. Cincalok
What is it? A fermented shrimp condiment made from small shrimps mixed with salt and sometimes rice.
Flavor & Usage: Often served with lime juice, chili, and shallots as a side dish or dip.
3. Budu
What is it? A fermented anchovy sauce popular in the East Coast states (Kelantan, Terengganu).
Flavor & Usage: Similar to fish sauce, but thicker and sometimes sweetened. Eaten as a dipping sauce or condiment.
4. Tempoyak
What is it? Fermented durian paste.
Flavor & Usage: Has a strong, tangy flavor; used in curries, sauces, or sometimes enjoyed on its own by durian enthusiasts.
Pakistan
1. Dahi (Yogurt) & Lassi
What are they? Dahi is a naturally fermented yogurt, while lassi is a yogurt-based drink (can be sweet or salty).
Flavor & Usage: Commonly consumed daily—dahi is used in savory dishes (raita) or desserts (e.g., sweet dahi), and lassi is a refreshing beverage.
2. Achaar (Pickles)
What is it? A variety of pickled fruits and vegetables (mango, chili, lime, etc.) that are often salted and spiced, then fermented.
Flavor & Usage: Tangy, spicy, and sometimes oily; served as a condiment alongside main meals.
(Note: While not exclusive to Pakistan, these are cornerstones of local cuisine and reflect the country’s shared culinary heritage with parts of North India.)
India
1. Dosa & Idli (South Indian Fermented Batters)
What are they? Dosa is a thin crepe and idli are steamed cakes, both made from fermented rice and lentil batter.
Flavor & Usage: Slightly sour, fluffy (idli) or crispy (dosa); eaten with chutney and sambar.
2. Dahi (Curd/Yogurt), Lassi, and Chaas
What are they? Fermented dairy products. Lassi is a yogurt-based drink (sweet or salty), and chaas (buttermilk) is spiced or plain yogurt blended with water.
Flavor & Usage: Cooling and probiotic-rich, commonly consumed with meals or as a standalone beverage.
3. Achaar (Pickles)
What is it? Similar to Pakistani achaar—fermented or pickled vegetables/fruits (mango, lime, chili, mixed vegetables).
Flavor & Usage: Adds tang and spice to Indian meals; many regional variations exist (e.g., Gujarati sweet mango chhundo, Punjabi spicy mango pickle).
4. Kaanji
What is it? A fermented drink made from carrots (often black carrots) or beetroot, water, and spices.
Flavor & Usage: Tangy and lightly spicy; traditionally consumed in North India during winter and spring festivals.
5. Jalebi (Batter Fermentation)
What is it? A sweet spiral-shaped dessert made from a fermented flour batter deep-fried and soaked in sugar syrup.
Flavor & Usage: Crisp exterior, syrupy interior, often enjoyed at breakfast or festive occasions.
